UNIVERSITY     OF     CALIFORNIA     AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BENJ.    IDE    WHEELER,    President 

THOMAS    FORSYTH    HUNT,  Dean  ano  Director 

BERKELEY  H     E*  VAN  NORMAN>  vice-director  and  dean 

DC"rlrVC'      ^  University    Farm    School 


COLLEGE   OF  AGRICULTURE 


CIRCULAR  No.  154 
July,  1916 

IRRIGATION  PRACTICE  IN  GROWING  SMALL 
FRUITS   IN   CALIFORNIA* 

By  WELLS  A.  HUTCHINS 
Office  of  Public  Koads  and  Enral  Engineering,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


The  census  returns  show  that  in  the  period  between  1899  and  1909 
the  acreage  in  small  fruits  in  California  was  increased  more  than  fifty 
per  cent,  and  that  the  production  and  value  of  the  fruits  were  nearly 
doubled.    In  1909,  strawberries  led  with  4,585  acres,  or  nearly  one-half 


Fig.  1. — Strawberry  field  in  Pajaro  Valley.     This  shows  the  location  of 
plant  beds,  irrigation  furrows,  and  distributing  flumes. 


of  the  whole  area  devoted  to  small  fruits,  followed  by  blackberries  and 
dewberries  with  2,576  acres,  raspberries  and  loganberries  with  1,992 
acres,  currants  with  407,  gooseberries  with  74,  and  cranberries  with  53 
acres.     The  irrigation  of  these  small  fruits  is  a  very  important  factor 


*  Based  on  work  done  under  co-operative  agreements  between  the  Office  of 
Public  Roads  and  Rural  Engineering,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the 
State  Department  of  Engineering  of  California,  and  between  the  Office  of  Public 
Roads  and  Rural  Engineering  and  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


in  their  production,  and  the  present  circular  has  been  prepared  for  the 
purpose  of  describing  and  analyzing  the  irrigation  practices  in  the 
important  berry  centers  of  the  state. 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  IRRIGATION 

In  most  sections  of  California  small  fruits  are  grown  under  irriga- 
tion, so  that  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  careful  preparation  of 
the  land  before  planting.  It  is  especially  essential  that  strawberry 
fields  be  well  graded,  because  the  streams  of  water  used  are  quite  small, 
and  because,  unless  the  land  has  an  even  slope,  the  application  of  water 
w^ill  not  be  uniform,  but  water  will  collect  in  depressions  and  flood  over 
the  berry  vines,  sometimes  killing  them  if  continued  for  any  length  of 
time.  Less  care  is  usually  employed  in  preparing  land  for  bush 
berries,  however,  and  the  ' '  finishing ' '  process  referred  to  below  is  often 
omitted.  When  a  strawberry  field  is  laid  out  according  to  one  of  the 
most  widely-used  furrow  systems,  described  later,  the  ridges  and  irriga- 
tion furrows  are  made  to  be  permanent  during  the  life  of  the  planting, 
but  the  furrows  in  a  blackberry  or  raspberry  field  are  usually  plowed 
up  and  renewed  every  year,  with  the  result  that  less  care  is  taken  in 
making  them.  Furthermore,  there  is  less  danger  to  the  plants  from 
minor  irregularities  in  the  irrigation  of  bush  fruits,  as  these  are  set 
quite  far  apart  and  are  deeper-rooted,  making  unnecessary  a  close 
approach  of  the  water  to  the  plants.  With  the  shallower-rooted  straw- 
berries, on  the  other  hand,  it  is  desirable  to  carry  the  water  as  close 
to  the  tops  of  the  ridges  as  possible  without  actually  flowing  over  them. 
Nevertheless,  a  carefully  established  grade  is  highly  desirable  in  bush- 
berry  fields  as  well  as  for  strawberries,  for  where  the  handling  of  water 
is  once  made  easy,  the  saving  in  labor  and  cost  of  water  may  in  some 
years  represent  the  difference  between  profit  and  loss. 


SURVEYING 

A  survey  of  the  field  is  the  first  step  in  its  preparation  for  irriga- 
tion, and  a  contour  map  is  of  much  assistance.  The  following  method 
of  laying  out  strawberry  fields  is  used  satisfactorily  in  parts  of  Pajaro 
Valley  on  gently  rolling  land :  The  high  edge  of  the  field  is  first  chosen 
for  the  location  of  the  main  irrigation  flume.  Then  after  determining 
from  the  contour  map  the  various  positions  of  furrows  and  lateral 
flumes,  which  are  such  as  to  require  the  least  grading,  each  lateral  flume 
line  is  marked  out  on  the  ground  and  stakes  are  driven  every  30  or  40 


3 

feet  along  such  line.  Through  the  first  stake  a  line  of  levels  is  run  in 
the  direction  the  furrows  are  to  take,  which  is  not  necessarily  at  right 
angles  to  the  lateral  flume,  and  grade  stakes  are  set  every  30  feet, 
balancing  the  cuts  and  fills.  This  grade  is  usually  1  to  2  inches  per  100 
feet,  or  else  the  furrows  are  made  level  from  end  to  end.  Then  an 
average  line  is  run  through  the  next  stake  parallel  to  the  first  line  and 
grade  stakes  are  set  similarly,  and  the  operation  is  repeated  through 
each  stake  along  each  of  the  lateral  flumes.  Some  growers  set  stakes 
every  50  feet  apart,  but  this  of  course  depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  ground,  more  stakes  being  required  when  the  surface  is  rough  than 
when  it  is  fairly  level.  The  cost  of  surveying  is  from  $2.00  to  $2.50 
per  acre. 

PLOWING   AND   CULTIVATING   BEFORE    PLANTING 

Plowing  and  harrowing  are  not  only  indispensable  in  securing  a 
good  bed  for  planting,  but  are  necessary  in  many  cases  to  loosen  the 
soil  so  that  it  may  be  easily  moved  by  the  leveling  implements.  The 
practice  in  some  sections  is  to  plow  twice  before  grading,  the  first  time 
to  a  depth  of  8  to  12  inches  and  the  next  time  shallower,  and  to  harrow 
after  each  plowing,  continuing  the  harrowing  as  occasion  may  require 
until  grading  has  been  completed.  Other  growers  plow  before  and 
after  leveling,  and  still  others  only  afterwards,  cultivating  the  ground 
several  times  thereafter.  To  avoid  a  dead  furrow  in  the  center  of  a 
small  tract  the  practice  sometimes  is  to  run  the  plow  once  up  and  down 
the  center  line  of  the  field,  throwing  the  soil  outwards,  and  then  to 
reverse  the  plow  and  go  up  and  down  the  furrow,  throwing  the  soil  into 
it,  and  so  on  around  the  field,  the  last  work  being  done  along  the 
borders.  Although  this  leaves  a  low  area  around  the  edges  of  the  tract, 
it  is  less  objectionable  than  a  trench  through  the  center.  The  total  cost 
of  the  several  plowings  and  cultivatings  varies  from  $5  to  $10  or  more 
per  acre,  depending  upon  the  number  of  operations. 

GRADING 

Methods  of  leveling  land  for  small  fruits  and  implements  used  are 
found  to  vary  somewhat  in  different  sections.  The  Para  jo  Valley 
method  used  in  conjunction  with  the  surveying  practice  described  above 
is  as  follows :  If  the  cuts  and  fills  are  very  great  a  Fresno  scraper  is 
used  first  and  the  finishing  is  done  with  a  "berry  leveler,"  (fig.  2), 
and  if  not  great  the  leveler  is  used  alone.  This  implement  has  two 
wheels  on  an  axle  7  feet  or  more  long,  to  which  is  attached  an  adjust- 


able  wooden  drag,  shod  with  iron,  and  having  aprons  on  the  side.  It 
is  drawn  by  one  or  two  horses,  depending  upon  the  size.  Very  close 
work  can  be  done  by  the  driver  standing  on  the  machine  and  operating 
the  adjusting  lever.  With  this  leveler  the  ground  is  worked  back  and 
forth  along  the  line  of  the  grade  stakes  for  15  feet  on  each  side,  or 
half  the  distance  to  the  next  row  of  stakes ;  then  it  is  taken  to  the  next 
line  and  the  ground  on  each  side  of  that  leveled  independently  of  that 
on  each  side  of  the  first  line ;  and  so  on  down.  This  method  is  followed 
because  it  is  more  essential  that  each  furrow  shall  have  its  proper 
grade  than  that  any  set  of  furrows  shall  bear  a  particular  relation  to 
an  adjoining  set.     However,  in  case  of  a  deep  swale  the  line  of  the 


Fig.  2. — Leveler  used  in  Pajaro  Valley  berry  district.  This  is  used  for 
the  final  grading  after  the  field  has  been  leveled  approximately  with  Fresno 
scrapers. 


ditches  may  be  changed  to  fit  it.  This  method  is  peculiarly  adapted 
to  fairly  rolling  land  where  it  is  not  desired  to  make  long  hauls  with 
the  scraper. 

On  the  level  valley  floor  lands  of  the  state  the  usual  practice  is  to 
level  each,  small  field  as  a  whole  and  to  run  all  furrows  in  the  same 
direction. 

In  some  sections,  after  leveling  the  field  approximately  to  the 
grade  stakes,  the  "finishing"  is  done  with  a  drag  or  float.  This  con- 
sists of  two  2-inch  by  12-inch  planks  12  to  16  feet  long  set  parallel  on 
edge  and  connected  by  three  2-inch  by  12-inch  cross-pieces  5  to  8  feet 


long,  one  at  each  end  of  the  structure  thus  formed,  and  the  third  in 
the  center.  Diagonal  strips  of  wood  are  used  as  braces.  The  central 
cross-plank  is  set  on  edge  and  vertical,  but  the  two  outer  pieces  slant 
backwards  from  top  to  bottom.  This  implement  is  drawn  by  two  or 
more  horses. 

A  satisfactory  and  inexpensive  home-made  leveler  for  berry  fields 
in  use  in  the  Gardena-Moneta  section  of  Los  Angeles  County  is  shown 
in  figure  3.  The  rear  wheels  are  mower- wheels,  set  on  an  axle  5  to  o' 
feet  long,  and  the  single  front  wheel  is  of  any  convenient  material  and 
size.  The  side  boards  are  2-inch  by  12-inch  planks  8  to  11  feet  or  more 
in  length.    The  scraping  device,  wrhich  is  controlled  by  a  lever,  is  4  to 


; 

■%•    ♦ 

~.  ■    - 

m    , 
- 

Fig.  3. — Leveler  used  in  Gardena-Moneta  berry  district.     A  simple  and 
cheaply  made  implement,  used  for  final  grading. 

5  feet  in  width,  made  of  2-inch  by  6-inch  pine  fitted  over  curved 
cleats  and  shod  with  iron  on  the  bottom  edge.  The  side  shields  or 
aprons  are  of  galvanized  iron.  The  smaller  implement  is  drawn  by 
two  horses  and  the  larger  by  four,  the  driver  standing  on  the  floor 
back  of  the  adjusting  lever. 

Where  large  heads  of  water  are  available  the  precaution  is  some- 
times taken  to  flood  the  field  after  leveling  and  then  to  fill  the  settled 
spots. 

If  the  berry  field  is  to  be  laid  out  on  a  steep  hillside,  which  is  often 
done  in  Pajaro  Valley  and  elsewhere,  no  grading  is  done,  but  the 
irrigation  furrows  are  made  to  follow  the  contours  of  the  hill  (fig.  4). 
The  practice  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  foothills  of  Placer  County  is  to  run 


6 

the  furrows  directly  down  the  slope  instead  of  along  the  contours,  thus 
following  the  system  used  extensively  there  in  orchards.  This  is 
feasible  where  very  small  streams  of  water  are  run  for  long  periods  of 
time.  With  such  irrigation  practice,  no  preparation  of  the  land  is 
attempted  other  than  to  provide  a  proper  bed  for  planting  and  to 
make  the  small  furrows. 

No  figures  can  be  given  on  the  cost  of  leveling  land  that  will  apply 
to  all  conditions,  because  the  cost  depends  entirely  upon  the  character 
of  land  to  be  graded.  Such  cost  may  range  from  $3  to  $4  up  to  $40 
or  more  per  acre,  but  the  maximum  is  seldom  expended  in  the  case 
of  small  fruits  unless  the  land  is  to  be  kept  permanently  in  some 
irrigated  crop. 


Fig.  4. — Sidehill  planting,  Pajaro  Valley.  Where  strawberry  fields  are  laid 
out  on  hillsides  in  this  section,  the  irrigation  furrows  are  made  to  follow  the 
contours  of  the  land.  In  Placer  County  the  furrows  are  smaller  and  run  directly 
down  the  slope. 


HEAD  DITCHES  AND  FLUMES 

After  grading,  the  tract  is  ready  for  the  installation  of  ditches  and 
furrows.  The  main  conduit  and  supply  laterals  may  be  earthen  ditches, 
open  flumes,  or  pipes,  the  most  widely  used  being  small  wooden  flumes. 
Earth  ditches  may  be  made  at  a  small  initial  cost,  $2  or  $3  per  acre, 
but  the  labor  and  consequent  cost  of  applying  water  will  be  increased 
because  of  the  operation  of  opening  and  damming  up  furrows  at  each 
irrigation.     Another   disadvantage   lies   in   seepage   losses.     Wooden 


flumes,  on  the  contrary,  require  only  a  small  amount  of  attendance, 
and  leakage  may  be  kept  at  a  minimum.  Concrete  flumes  or  under- 
ground concrete  pipe  would  be  more  satisfactory  in  all  respects  than 
either  and  have  longer  life  than  wood  structures,  but  their  high  first 
cost,  amounting  to  about  double  that  of  wood,  has  been  sufficient  to 
deter  berry  growers  from  installing  them  for  the  comparatively  short 
time  land  is  usually  kept  in  irrigated  small  fruits,  and  they  are  seldom 
found  in  practice.  The  use  of  iron  surface  pipe  is  nor.  extensive  in  the 
irrigation  of  small  fruits. 

Small  earth  ditches  are  used  extensively  in  berry  irrigation  in  lower 
San  Joaquin  Valley.  They  are  also  found  in  Placer  County  and  in  a 
few  sections  of  southern  California.  Conditions  encouraging  their  use 
are  the  low  first  cost  and  an  ample  water  supply. 

Wooden  flumes  are  very  commonly  found  in  Pajaro  Valley.  Santa 
Clara  Valley,  and  the  southern  California  berry  centers.  In  Pajaro 
Valley  rectangular  boxes  are  used,  the  main  flumes  being  12  by  14 
inches  and  the  laterals  8  by  10  inches,  outside  measurement;  i.e.,  the 
box  is  constructed  of  three  pieces  of  1-inch  by  12-inch  or  1-inch  by 
8-inch  lumber,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  sides  being  nailed  outside  the 
floor  and  making  the  inside  measurement  11  by  12  and  7  by  8  inches, 
respectively.  Small  cleats  are  nailed  across  the  top  at  intervals  of  2 
to  8  or  10  feet  to  brace  the  sides,  and  occasionally  these  braces  extend 
completely  around  the  flume.  The  inside  of  the  flume  is  partially  or 
wholly  painted  with  tar  or  the  joints  are  covered  with  tarred  paper 
to  insure  water-tightness.  Sometimes  pieces  of  lath  are  nailed  outside 
over  the  vertical  joints.  Wherever  possible  the  flume  box  is  laid  on  the 
ground,  but  when  crossing  a  swale  simple  wooden  supports  are  used 
(fig.  5).  The  main  flume  between  the  berry  field  and  pumping  plant, 
where  it  must  be  raised  in  order  to  provide  sufficient  grade,  rests  upon  a 
more  elaborate  trestle  (fig.  6),  consisting  of  2-inch  by  4-inch  bents  and 
caps,  braced  with  2-inch  by  4-inch  cross-pieces,  set  about  8  feet  apart. 
Diagonal  braces  are  provided  where  necessary  to  give  additional 
strength  or  to  supplant  the  horizontal  braces.  For  crossing  deep, 
narrow  gullies,  suspension  bridges  with  triangular  trusses  are  in  use. 
Inverted  siphons  are  frequently  placed  at  road  crossings.  The  grade 
of  the  main  flume  is  usually  about  3.5  inches  in  100  feet,  and  of  the 
laterals  1  to  2.5  inches  in  100  feet. 

In  some  parts  of  Santa  Clara,  San  Fernando,  and  San  Gabriel 
valleys  and  elsewhere  a  V-shaped  flume  is  more  common  than  the 
rectangular  flume.  This  is  made  of  two  1-inch  by  12-inch  or  1-inch  by 
8-inch  timbers  joined  at  right  angles  and  braced  at  the  top  or  com- 


8 

pletely  around  by  cleats  nailed  at  intervals  of  a  few  feet.  The  con- 
struction of  this  type  is  somewhat  simpler  and  the  liability  to  leakage 
less  than  in  case  of  the  rectangular  form,  but  some  side  support  must 
be  given  the  V-flume  even  when  it  is  laid  flush  with  the  ground.  "With 
very  small  heads  of  water  this  type  of  flume  is  the  more  economical, 
owing  to  the  smaller  quantity  of  lumber  required. 

At  the  lateral  turn-outs  from  the  main  flumes,  two  cleats  are  nailed 
at  each  side  of  the  lateral  to  form  grooves  into  which  the  slide-gate 
may  fit.  i 

Galvanized  iron  surface  pipe,  2  inches  in  diameter,  is  in  limited 
use  in  bush-berry  fields  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  foothills,  the  pipe  sections 


Fig.  5. — Flum 


e  trestle  crossing  swale.     Simple  wooden  supports 
where  the  flume  is  close  to*  the  ground. 


are  used 


being  disconnected  as  convenient  and  the  water  allowed  to  run  into 
a  small  group  of  furrows  at  one  time.  Cast-iron  pipe  is  likewise  of 
limited  general  use,  but  is  found  locally  in  most  of  the  berry  fields  in 
the  Montebello  district  of  Los  Angeles  County,  where  water  is  supplied 
under  pressure  from  underground  mains  and  the  quantities  used  de- 
termined by  meter.  This  pipe  is  commonly  2  inches  inside  diameter 
and  is  laid  on  the  ground  surface  along  the  upper  ends  of  the  irrigation 
furrows,  the  flow  into  the  various  laterals  being  controlled  by  valves. 
Some  growers  in  the  Moneta  district  of  Los  Angeles  County  have 
earth  ditches  lined  with  1-inch  by  12-inch  lumber  on  the  side  nearest 
the  beds,  the  lumber  being  held  in  place  by  stakes.     This  type  of  dis- 


tributary  does  not  prevent  seepage  losses,  but  it  prevents  erosion  of  the 
sides  of  the  furrows  and  better  regulates  the  quantities  of  water  turned 
into  the  furrows  than  if  no  facing  were  provided,  at  the  same  time 
eliminating  two-thirds  of  the  cost  of  a  Hume. 

When  earth  ditches  are  used  metal  dams  or  tappoons  are  set  in 
place  for  diverting  the  water  into  any  desired  number  of  furrows,  and 
when  these  furrows  have  been  irrigated  the  tappoon  is  carried  farther 
down  the  ditch  for  the  next  set.  Obviously  it  is  necessary  to  close  the 
heads  of  the  furrows  as  they  are  watered.  Sometimes  short  pieces  of 
1-inch  iron  pipe  are  laid  through  the  ditch  bank  to  admit  water  to 
the  furrows.  Small  division  boxes  with  slide-gates  are  placed  at  the 
junction  of  main  ditch  and  laterals. 


Fig.  6. — Flume  trestle  at  pumping  plant.  When  the  pumping  plant  is  located 
at  a  low  point  in  the  field  or  at  some  distance  from  the  field,  the  trestle  must 
be  raised  high  enough  to  provide  the  necessary  grade. 


Water  is  released  from  the  wooden  flumes  through  holes  or  cuts 
of  varying  sizes  (fig.  7).  In  Pajaro  Valley  and  parts  of  Santa  Clara 
Valley  the  holes  are  usually  3  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  lower  edges 
made  flush  with  the  bottom  of  the  flume,  and  fitted  with  wooden  plugs 
partially  wrapped  with  cloth  to  insure  tight  fitting.  Sometimes  rec- 
tangular cuts  are  made,  plugs  for  which  are  the  pieces  that  were  sawed 
out,  wrapped  with  cloth.  In  parts  of  Santa  Clara  Valley  and  in 
southern  California  1-inch  auger  holes  are  made  in  the  side  near  the 
bottom,  one  hole  for  each  furrow,  and  either  wooden  or  cork  plugs 
or  hinged  wooden  doors  are  provided  for  regulating  the  flow.     In  the 


10 


case  of  V-shaped  flumes  also,  1-inch  auger  holes  are  bored  near  the 
bottom  and  fitted  with  plugs  or  corks.  With  large  heads  of  water  two 
or  three  such  holes  are  grouped  for  each  furrow,  this  same  practice 
being  followed  in  earth  ditches  lined  on  one  side  with  lumber  as  above 
described.  To  prevent  washing,  the  outlets  should  be  placed  as  close 
to  the  ground  as  possible. 

Dams  in  rectangular  flumes  consist  of  short  pieces  of  lath  placed 
one  above  another  on  edge  and  made  long  enough  to  fit  tightly  into 
the  flumes.  Sometimes  longer  sticks  are  merely  laid  against  the  cleats, 
nailed  at  intervals  across  the  flumes,  particularly  in  the  case  of 
V-shaped  flumes  on  account  of  their  inconvenient  shape  (fig.  8).     This 


Fig.  7. — Irrigating  from  rectangular  wooden  flume.  This  shows  the  rec- 
tangular openings  in  the  flume,  and  also  the  more  commonly  used  circular  holes 
fitted  with  wooden  plugs. 


is  a  makeshift  practice,  however,  and  at  small  additional  cost  it  would 
be  possible  to  have  slide-gates  at  convenient  intervals  in  either  type  of 
flume  by  cutting  grooves  or  nailing  cleats  on  two  sides.  These  gates 
could  be  raised  or  lowered  in  a  rectangular  flume  to  permit  the  desired 
quantity  of  water  to  pass,  and  in  case  of  a  V-flume  triangular  gates  of 
varying  height  could  be  used  to  allow  for  the  desired  overfall. 

In  the  case  of  the  cast-iron  pipe  used  at  Montebello,  holes  one-fourth 
to  five-sixteenths  inch  in  diameter,  one  for  each  furrow,  are  provided 
as  outlets.  These  holes  are  fitted  with  wooden  plugs.  The  flow  of 
water  in  the  pipes  is  controlled  by  valves. 


11 

Assuming  the  length  of  furrows  to  be  200  feet  and  not  counting 
main  supply  conduits,  there  will  be  required  per  acre  for  an  average 
shaped  tract  about  525  board-feet  of  1-inch  lumber,  of  which  125  board- 
feet  is  for  the  12-inch  main  flume  and  400  board-feet  for  the  8-inch 
laterals.  At  $25  per  thousand  feet  the  cost  of  lumber  will  amount  to 
about  $13  and  labor  will  cost  about  $6  or  $7,  providing  the  flume  is 
laid  on  the  ground,  making  the  total  cost  of  flume  installed  approxi- 
mately $20  per  acre.  Any  amount  of  trestle  required  will  increase  the 
cost  correspondingly  because  of  the  added  amount  of  lumber  and 
greater  expense  of  fitting.  If  water  is  conveyed  from  a  pumping  plant 
located  outside  the  tract,  as  is  often  the  case,  there  should  be  added  to 
the  above  figures  the  proportionate  cost  of  installing  the  flume  leading 
from  the  plant  to  the  tract,  which  will  depend  upon  the  added  length 
of  flume  and  amount  of  trestle-work  required. 

The  cost  of  a  12-inch  V-shaped  flume  will  be  about  the  same,  but  an 
8-inch  V-type  installed  under  the  same  conditions  will  cost  $14  or 
$15  per  acre. 

MAKING   THE   FURROWS 

The  types  of  furrow  systems  found  in  California  berry  fields  are 
described  later.  Only  the  process  of  making  them,  which  is  the  next 
step  in  the  preparation  of  the  field,  will  be  considered  here. 

In  Pajaro  Valley,  where  the  strawberry  furrows  are  very  broad, 
the  general  practice  has  been  to  make  them  with  a  shovel.  On  a  pole 
some  30  feet  in  length  are  made  pairs  of  marks  representing  the  width 
of  the  furrows,  with  the  distance  between  the  pairs  equal  to  that  desired 
between  furrows.  The  pole  is  laid  down  successively  along  the  supply 
ditch  or  flume  and  stakes  are  set  at  each  mark,  and  the  process  is 
repeated  at  the  foot  of  the  furrow  spaces,  usually  150  to  300  feet  away. 
Strings  or  wires  are  then  stretched  taut  from  each  head  stake  to  its 
corresponding  stake  at  the  foot  so  that  the  furrows  lie  marked  out  on 
the  ground.  A  man  then  goes  down  the  furrow  spaces  with  a  shovel 
and  throws  alternate  shovelsful  right  and  left  to  equalize  the  furrows 
and  ridges.  The  cost  of  this  operation,  including  smoothing  the  ridges 
afterwards,  is  $15  or  more  per  acre.  More  recently,  however,  in  Santa 
Clara  and  Pajaro  valleys  horse-drawn  implements  for  making  ridges 
have  come  into  use  because  of  the  smaller  cost.  A  typical  implement 
of  this  kind  consists  of  three  iron  V-scrapers,  the  sides  flaring  outward 
toward  the  rear,  these  being  fastened  together,  abreast,  the  desired 
distance  apart,  the  whole  hung  from  two  wheels  in  front  and  from  one 
at  the  back,  and  with  two  upright  rachet  levers  for  raising  or  lowering 


12 

the  "V's"  with  reference  to  the  wheels  (fig.  9).  This  implement  is 
drawn  by  four  horses,  the  driver  standing  on  a  platform  at  the  back 
and  adding  his  weight  to  the  machine.  This  of  course  makes  three 
furrows  at  one  time.  The  ridges  are  subsequently  properly  shaped 
and  smoothed  with  hoes  and  spades.  Sometimes,  however,  the  ridging 
is  done  with  a  disk-harrow  drawn  by  two  horses,  the  two  disks  on  each 
side  being  set  at  such  an  angle  that  the  earth  is  thrown  into  a  ridge 
in  the  center,  the  finishing  being  done  by  hand.  Other  growers  do  the 
work  with  shovel-cultivators.  A  small  shovel  is  attached  to  the  back  of 
a  V-shaped  cultivator,  with  ropes  stretched  to  keep  it  in  line,  the  teeth 
stirring  up  the  soil  and  the  shovel  throwing  it  to  both  sides.     Later 


Fig.  8. — Irrigating    from    V-shaped    wooden    flume.      The    water    is    turned 
into  the  furrows  through  1-inch  auger  holes  near  the  bottom  of  the  flume. 


along  the  furrow  thus  marked  out  a  broader  shovel  is  drawn  to  widen 
and  complete  it,  the  ridges  then  being  smoothed  with  hoes.  This 
finishing  work  is  facilitated  in  any  case  by  stretching  wires  or  ropes 
along  the  edges  of  ridges  to  mark  the  desired  width  and  then  working 
into  them.  The  cost  of  these  various  methods  ranges  from  $2  to  $6  or 
$7  per  acre.  Their  disadvantage  as  compared  with  the  hand  method 
lies  in  the  difficulty  in  adhering  to  a  perfect  alignment,  but  the  lessened 
cost  is  an  important  factor. 

In  some  places  the  rows  are  measured  at  the  head  with  a  tape 
instead  of  with  a  marked  pole.  Marking  the  furrow  centers  is  some- 
times done  with  a  wheel-barrow,  though  the  liability  of  variation  from 


13 

a  straight  line  is  great.  Again  a  sled,  with  runners  adjusted  to 
the  proper  width,  may  be  used,  and  a  variation  of  this  consists  in 
having  the  runners  spaced  twice  the  desired  width  with  a  chain  drag- 
ging in  the  center  to  make  the  third  mark.  Hy  moving  this  up  and 
down  the  field  with  the  outside  runner  following  closely  a  mark  already 
made,  the  proper  alignment  may  be  maintained. 

Where  the  furrows  are  not  so  wide,  but  are  deeper,  they  may  be 
readily  made  with  a  one-horse  plow  by  going  back  and  forth  along  the 
mark  to  the  desired  depth.  Very  small  furrows  are  sometimes  made 
with  a  hand  plow  or  even  with  a  hoe.  The  ridges  are  thrown  up  to  a 
greater  height  than  is  ultimately  intended  and  later'  smoothed  down. 


Fig.  9. — Kidger  used  in  Irvington  berry  district.     Each  of  the  three 
scoops  out  a  furrow.     The  implement  is  drawn  by  four  or  six  horses. 


V's 


This  finishing  may  be  readily  done  with  a  V-shaped  ditcher  or  crowder 
adjusted  to  the  final  width  of  the  furrow  and  having  horizontal  wings 
to  smooth  the  surface  of  the  ridges,  which  is  the  practice  in  the  Florin 
and  San  Joaquin  County  sections.  In  the  Moneta  district  of  Los 
Angeles  County  the  newly-made  furrows  are  first  harrowed  with  a 
V-shaped  cultivator  to  prepare  the  furrow  bottoms,  and  then  a  ridge 
smoother  completes  the  tops  and  sides  of  the  beds.  This  ridge  smoother 
consists  of  three  boards  about  3  feet  in  length  fitted  together  in  such 
widths  and  at  such  angles  that  the  completed  form  corresponds  exactly 
to  the  desired  shape  of  the  ridge  when  completed.  Being  drawn  by  one 
horse  and  with  the  driver  standing  on  it,  this  implement  molds  the 
ridges  to  their  final  form. 


14      . 

There  is  also  in  use  in  the  Gardena-Moneta  section  an  ingenious 
scoop-scraper  for  the  removal  of  minor  irregularities  in  furrows  (fig. 
10).  This  scraper  consists  of  a  2-foot  section  of  12-inch  well-casing 
opened  and  spread  into  a  semi-circle,  blocked  with  wood  at  the  back 
end  and  braced  across  the  top  with  a  stick  at  the  front.  At  the  back 
is  a  handle  2  feet  long  extending  from  the  two  sides,  and  attached  to 
the  block  of  wood  is  a  very  short  handle,  the  former  for  bearing  down 
and  the  latter  for  lifting.  The  implement  is  drawn  by  one  horse. 
Sometimes  the  scoop  is  used  before  harrowing  the  furrows,  and  again 
not  until  water  has  been  turned  into  the  furrows  and  the  small  irregu 
larities  in  grade  are  more  discernible.    Very  small  quantities  of  eartl 


Fig.  10. — Scoop-scraper  for  furrows.  This  is  used  for  correcting  minor 
irregularities  in  the  grade  of  furrows.  The  long  handle  is  for  bearing  down, 
and  the  short  handle  for  lifting.     It  is  drawn  by  one  horse. 


may  be  easily  handled  in  this  way  and  a  more  nearly  perfect  grade 
secured. 

Provision  is  usually  made  for  dams  of  some  kind  in  the  furrows 
where  the  soil  is  too  heavy  to  permit  of  rapid  penetration  of  irrigation 
water  and  where  the  grade  is  such  that  water  might  run  off  too  rapidly. 
In  some  cases  these  dams  or  checks  are  of  soil,  often  covered  with 
newspapers  or  cloth  to  prevent  their  washing  away,  and  placed  every 
60  to  80  feet  or  more  apart  in  the  furrows,  serving  to  hold  back  the 
water  and  to  permit  it  to  soak  into  the  ditch  banks  (fig.  11).  Again  a 
wooden  dam  may  be  used,  with  a  piece  cut  from  the  top  to  permit  water 


15 

to  flow  over  into  the  next  section  (fig.  12).  The  washing  of  the  soil 
caused  by  falling  water  may  be  avoided  by  imbedding  a  few  stones 
close  to  the  dam.  These  checks  are  used  only  in  large  furrows  having 
some  grade  where  considerable  quantities  of  water  are  turned  in,  and 
have  no  application  to  the  practice  of  making  small  furrows  and  turn- 
ing into  them  only  enough  water  to  reach  the  ends. 

The  construction  of  a  small  drain  or  run-off  ditch  is  necessary  at 
the  ends  of  furrows  where  the  soil  does  not  absorb  rain  water  as  it 
falls  and  where  consequently  there  is  danger  of  flooding.  There  is 
less  liability  of  damage  from  this  source  during  the  irrigation  season 
because  of  the  possibility  of  regulating  the  amounts  of  water  in  fur- 
rows; hence  the  ends  of  the  furrows  are  opened  in  winter  and  closed 
in  summer. 

With  the  completion  of  the  ridges  and  furrows  the  field  is  ready 
for  planting. 

TRELLISES 

Bush  berries  of  the  trailing  type  are  trellised,  and  even  those  of 
the  upright  tj^pe  are  usually  provided  with  some  form  of  support 
because  of  the  weight  of  the  canes  when  loaded  with  fruit.  The  trellis 
consists  of  posts  2  inches  by  4  inches,  more  or  less,  in  dimension, 
3  to  5  feet  high,  and  set  from  10  to  30  feet  apart,  with  double  wires 
stretched  one  above  another  or  abreast.  Such  trellising  costs  from  $10 
to  $25  per  acre  in  place,  depending  upon  the  extent  of  vegetation  and 
resulting  strength  of  materials  necessary  to  support  it. 

SETTING  PLANTS 

In  setting  strawberry  plants  a  spade,  dibble,  or  trowel  may  be 
used.  Often  a  line  is  stretched  along  the  bed  at  the  proper  distance 
from  the  side  and  the  planter  goes  along  this,  estimating  the  distance 
from  plant  to  plant.  In  sections  where  very  small  furrows  are  made 
the  plants  are  sometimes  set  out  before  the  furrows  are  made.  A 
marker  is  used  in  San  Fernando  Valley  consisting  of  a  number  of 
thinly-sharpened  pegs  projecting  downward  from  a  timber  at  intervals 
corresponding  to  the  distance  between  the  rows,  with  a  handle  in  the 
center,  and  all  usually  of  very  light  construction.  This  is  drawn  down 
the  field  by  a  man  to  mark  out  the  plant  rows.  After  setting  the  plants 
the  furrows  are  made  with  a  hand  plow.  In  some  instances  plants  are 
set  out  in  a  trench  made  by  a  plow.  Bush  berries  are  set  in  holes  made 
with  a  spade  or  in  a  trench,  and  if  regularity  of  spacing  is  desired 
the  distances  are  measured. 


16 

Setting  out  the  strawberry  plants  costs  $8  to  $10  per  acre.  The 
plants  themselves  vary  in  price,  from  $2  up  to  $15  or  $20  per  thousand. 
Most  of  the  varieties  grown  commercially  in  California  cost  from  $2 
to  $6  per  thousand.  The  number  of  plants  originally  set  per  acre 
ranges  from  12,000  to  18,000  or  20,000,  and  the  acreage  cost  for  plants 
usually  ranges  from  $20  to  $50,  because  reductions  may  be  made  when 
plants  are  supplied  in  very  large  quantities.  Setting  out  bush-berry 
plants  costs  about  one-half  as  much  as  setting  out  strawberries.  They 
ire  spaced  farther  apart  and  fewer  plants  are  used — about  800  per 
acre  for  blackberries,  up  to  2500  for  raspberries  and  currants,  with 
loganberries  and  dewberries  at  intermediate  figures.     The  California 


Fig.  11. — Earth   dams  in   furrows.     These  -are   placed   at   intervals   to   hold 
back  the  water  where  the  grade  would  otherwise  cause  it  to  run  off  too  rapidly. 


bush-berry  varieties  range  in  price  from  $5  to  $35  per  thousand,  making 
the  acreage  cost  from  $20  to  $60  for  plants,  or  about  the  same  as  for 
strawberries. 


FURROW  SYSTEMS 

Only  one  method  of  irrigating  small  fruits  is  in  use  in  the  com- 
mercial berry  centers  of  California,  and  that  consists  in  applying  the 
water  in  furrows.  As  a  rule  the  plants  are  set  on  raised  beds  or  ridges 
and  the  water  is  allowed  to  seep  into  the  sides,  but  in  a  few  places  the 
berry  plants  are  placed  on  the  general  level  of  the  field  and  the  water 


17 

Is  run  in  very  small  furrows  made  after  planting.  There  are  of 
course  some  exceptions  to  the  one  general  method  of  irrigation.  For 
instance,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  a  few  growers  of  nursery 
stock  and  berries,  vegetables  and  berries,  and  small  fruits  and  flowers 
are  using  spray  systems  of  irrigation,  but  for  small  fruits  alone  such 
systems  have  not  at  this  writing  come  into  extended  use  in  commercial 
plantations  in  California.  The  depressed-bed  method,  in  which  the 
plants  are  grown  on  level  areas  inclosed  by  levees  along  the  tops  of 
which  small  irrigation  ditches  are  run,  although  found  in  truck 
gardens  near  the  large  cities,  does  not  appear  in  strawberry  fields  at 
the  present  time.1 


Fig.  12. 


-Wooden  dam  in  furrow.     The  cracks  in  the  soil  are  the  result 
of  failing  to  cultivate  after  irrigating. 


Within  this  general  method  of  irrigation  by  furrows  are  the  two 
divisions  spoken  of  above,  the  raised-bed  and  level-planting  systems, 
and  the  former  may  be  further  subdivided  into  three  classes  for  straw- 
berries and  two  for  bush  fruits,  differing  mainly  in  the  relative 
locations  of  furrows  and  berry  rows.  These  have  been  termed  the 
single-row  system,  the  matted-row  system,  and  the  double  matted-row 
system  of  irrigating  strawberries,  and  the  single-furrow  and  double- 
furrow  systems  of  bush  fruits.  Thus  the  differences  in  the  strawberry 
systems  relate  mainly  to  the  width  of  the  beds  and  consequent  character 
of  plant  rows  on  the  beds  between  furrows,  «and  in  the  bush-berry 


i  The  merits  of  various  methods  of  garden  irrigation  are  discussed  in  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers '  Bull.  138,  ' '  Irrigation  in  Field  and  Garden. ' ' 


18 

systems  to  the  number  of  furrows  between  plant  rows.  Within  these 
groups  are  also  variations  in  dimension.  Whenever  the  term  "bed"  is 
used  herein  it  is  taken  to  mean  the  ridge  between  two  furrows. 

Furrows  in  berry  fields  are  usually  200  to  2*50  feet  in  length.  Often 
they  are  made  level  from  end  to  end,  or  again  are  given  a  grade  of 
upwards  of  3  inches  in  100  feet.  Where  large  heads  of  water  are 
turned  in  and  the  desire  is  to  fill  the  furrow  and  to  allow  the  standing 
water  to  seep  into  the  sides,  the  only  purpose  subserved  by  a  grade  is 
to  induce  rain  water  to  run  off  where  the  soil  does  not  absorb  it  readily, 
and  in  such  case  dams  as  described  on  page  14  must  be  placed  in  the 
furrows  at  intervals  to  hold  back  the  irrigation  water.  Where  the  soil 
is  sufficiently  porous  to  absorb  rain  water  the  level  furrow  is  preferable. 
Small  furrows  in  which  very  small  streams  are  to  be  run  are  laid  on 
a  grade  in  order  to  permit  the  water  to  reach  the  ends. 


FURROW    SYSTEMS    FOR    STRAWBERRIES 

The  raised-bed  method  is  by  far  the  more  prevalent  of  the  two 
practices  and  in  the  following  descriptions  its  several  subdivisions 
will  be  given  equal  weight  with  the  level-planting  system. 

Single-row  system. — This  is  probably  less  in  use  than  either  of  the 
other  raised-bed  systems  and  certainly  less  than  the  ordinary  double- 
row  system.  Fields  are  laid  out  on  this  plan  in  Los  Angeles  and 
Orange  counties,  Santa  Clara  Valley,  at  Gait  in  Sacramento  County, 
and  doubtless  elsewhere.  In  one  field  of  this  type  visited  the  furrows 
are  2  feet  apart  from  center  to  center,  and  the  ridges  and  furrows 
are  of  equal  width,  the  furrows  being  about  6  inches  deep.  The 
distance  from  center  to  center  of  beds  is  sometimes  22  inches,  or  as 
much  as  34  inches,  in  the  latter  case  the  width  of  the  furrow  exceeding 
that  of  the  ridge,  which  is  an  uneconomical  practice  because  of  the 
lessened  area  given  to  the  plants.  The  depth  of  furrows  likewise  varies. 
It  is  seldom  greater  than  6  inches  under  this  system,  but  is  often  only 
3  or  4  inches,  the  determining  factor  being  the  water  supply  available 
and  the  head  to  be  run  in  each  furrow. 

Very  often  the  plants  are  grown  as  "singles;"  i.e.,  all  runners  are 
cut  off  as  they  appear  and  only  the  original  or  mother  plants  are 
allowed  to  grow.  Sometimes  one  runner  plant  is  set  between  adjoining 
originals,  however,  especially  where  the  latter  are  planted  far  apart. 
This  distance  between' plants  is  governed  by  the  variety  and  by  the 
financial  means  of  the  grower.  Varieties  that  make  large  plants  and 
that  produce  many  runners  require  greater  spacing,  and  a  grower 


19 

whose  means  make  imperative  as  small  an  initial  outlay  as  possible 
usually  buys  a  minimum  number  of  strawberry  plants  and  depends 
upon  the  runner  plants  to  supplement  the  stand.  Consequently  this 
original  spacing  is  found  to  vary  from  6  inches  to  4  feet.  In  a  large 
field  at  Strawberry  Park,  Los  Angeles  County,  plants  were  set  out 
4  feet  apart  in  the  center  of  the  bed  in  the  first  instance  and  two 
rows  of  four  runner  plants  each  were  made  between  adjoining  originals, 
resulting  in  an  ultimate  distance  of  about  10  inches  between  plants. 

In  soils  which  permit  of  limited  lateral  penetration  of  irrigation 
water  this  single-row  system  is  preferable  because  of  the  narrower 
beds  and  greater  opportunity  for  irrigation  water  to  reach  the  plant 
roots  from  the  two  furrows.  Objections  made  by  some  growers  are 
that  the  greater  proportion  of  wetted  surface  gives  more  opportunity 
for  baking  and  that  the  narrower  ridges  dry  out  too  quickly;  also 
that  in  very  light  soils  the  sides  of  the  ridges  are  eroded  and  plant 
roots  thus  exposed  to  injury.  The  first  objection  may  be  partially 
overcome  by  cultivation,  and  the  second  is  not  serious  in  heavier  soils. 
On  the  other  hand,  an  advantage  of  the  narrower  beds  lies  in  the 
greater  area  that  may  be  cultivated  with  a  horse  and  the  consequent 
elimination  of  much  expensive  hand  work. 

Matted-row  system. — The  matted-row  system  differs  from  that  just 
considered  in  the  greater  width  of  beds  between  furrows  and  the 
covering  of  the  beds  with  plants  instead  of  limiting  the  plants  to  one 
row  on  a  narrow  bed.  This  is  the  most  widely  used  method  found  in 
California  for  strawberries.  It  is  universal  in  Pajaro  Valley  and  is 
largely  in  vogue  in  Santa  Clara  Valley  and  southern  California.  The 
field  shown  in  figure  13  is  a  typical  Pajaro  Valley  field  of  this  class. 
The  ridges  or  beds  are  spaced  54  inches  from  center  to  center,  the 
ridges  32  inches  wide,  and  the  furrows  22  inches  wide  and  from  3 
to  6  inches  deep.  The  beds  are  level  from  side  to  side.  The  furrows 
vary  in  length  from  150  to  300  feet,  200  feet  being  probably  most 
general.  At  the  end  of  a  bed  of  such  length  another  supply  flume 
heads  another  similar  bed. 

In  the  matted-row  system  the  plants  are  originally  set  out  in  double 
rows  on  each  bed,  the  rows  being  20  inches  apart  and  the  plants  10 
to  22  inches  apart  in  the  row,  depending  upon  the  variety.  For 
instance,  Malindas  are  usually  spaced  10  or  12  inches  apart  and  larger 
varieties  like  the  Klondike  about  20  inches.  From  these  mother  plants 
all  runners  are  cut  off  during  the  first  year,  except  two  or  three  which 
are  set  to  fill  the  intervening  spaces,  thus  giving  a  single  matted  row 
on  each  bed  and  covering  the  entire  ridge  with  foliage. 


20 

There  are  variations  from  these  dimensions,  however.  Sometimes 
the  distance  from  center  to  center  is  only  42  inches.  In  many  parts 
of  southern  California  the  distance  is  36  inches,  with  the  ridges  and 
furrows  of  proportionate  width,  or  about  21  and  15  inches,  respectively. 
In  other  places  the  distance  from  center  to  center  is  34  or  even  as  short 
as  28  inches.  The  54-inch  dimension  is  followed  in  parts  of  Santa 
Clara  Valley. 

In  Pajaro  Valley  there  is  a  considerable  area  of  hillside  plantings 
where  the  rows  follow  the  contours.  The  distance  from  center  to  center 
of  furrows  is  greater  than  in  level  fields,  being  66  inches  usually,  or  a 
foot  greater.    The  slope  of  the  ridges  from  side  to  side  is  greater  than 


Fig.  13. — Strawberries  under  matted-row -system.  Two  rows  of  plants  are 
originally  set  out  along  each  bed  and  the  runner  plants  fill  the  intervening- 
spaces,  making  finally  one  matted  row  between  two  irrigation  furrows. 

the  general  slope  of  the  hill  and  the  ridges  are  banked  up  so  that  the 
furrows  are  level  and  symmetrical  from  side  to  side.  It  is  quite  neces- 
sary that  the  upper  side  of  each  bed  should  be  well  banked,  else  in 
cultivating  the  furrow,  soil  will  be  thrown  down  upon  the  plants. 
These  hillside  plantings  are  satisfactory  where  the  soil  is  good  and 
where  it  is  carefully  prepared,  and,  also,  where  there  is  good  under- 
d  rain  age. 

The  matted-row  system  with  its  greater  width  of  beds  lias  the 
advantage  of  a  smaller  number  of  furrows  to  take  care  of.  It  is 
adapted  to  soils  where  conditions  are  favorable  for  lateral  penetration 
of  water  by  capillarity  or  because  of  an  underlying  hard  stratum,  and 


21 

the  beds  should  not  be  made  so  broad  that  the  moisture  from  the  two 
furrows  is  unable  to  meet  within  a  short  time  after  irrigation. 

Double  matted-row  system. — The  points  of  difference  between  this 
system  and  the  ordinary  matted-row  system  just  described  are  tin; 
division  into  two  independent  rows  of  plants  on  a  bed,  the  resultant 
greater  distance  between  irrigation  furrows,  the  greater  depth  of 
furrows,  and  the  differing  functions  of  the  alternate  spaces  between 
plant  rows.  Figure  14  represents  a  typical  field  of  this  type  at  Lodi, 
in  San  Joaquin  County.  The  distance  from  one  furrow  center  to 
another  is  6  feet,  and  the  furrows  are  12  inches  deep.  The  plants  are 
originally  set  out  in  double  rows  3y2  feet  apart  and  1  foot  apart  in 
the  row.  From  each  of  these  plants  two  to  three  or  four  runners  are 
made  to  take  root,  largely  set  in  from  the  furrow  side,  although  some 
plants  hang  out  over  the  furrow.  When  the  two  parallel  rows  on  a 
raised  bed  have  completely  formed  there  is  a  bare  space  some  18  inches 
in  width  between.  The  result  of  this  system  is  parallel  matted  rows  3 
feet  apart  from  center  to  center,  with  irrigation  furrows  and  level 
bare  strips  in  alternate  intervening  spaces.  The  purposes  of  these  two 
classes  of  intervening  spaces  are  altogether  different;  that  is  to  say, 
the  furrows  are  used  for  carrying  water  only,  whereas  the  bare  strips 
on  the  beds  are  cultivated,  instead  of  the  furrows,  and  they  further 
serve  as  paths  for  pickers  to  walk  in.  The  furrows  are  made  quite 
level  from  end  to  end,  and  about  100  feet  long.  In  some  of  the  fields 
the  distance  from  center  to  center  of  furrows  is  5  feet  instead  of  6, 
and  in  other  localities  it  is  as  great  as  7  feet. 

An  adaptation  of  this  system  to  an  inter-cropping  of  berries  and 
vines  is  found  in  the  Florin  district,  in  Sacramento  County,  and  is 
practically  universal  there  in  berry  fields.  The  strawberries  are  inci- 
dental to  the  vineyard  and  are  planted  in  order  to  provide  an  income 
while  the  vines  are  maturing.  The  grape  vines  are  set  8  feet  apart 
each  way  and  the  irrigation  furrows  are  1  foot  from  the  vines,  but  are 
only  made  on  one  side  of  them.  Thus  the  distance  from  center  to 
center  of  furrows  is  8  feet.  The  furrows  are  12  to  18  inches  wide  and 
1  foot  deep.  On  each  side  of  the  ''lands"  between  the  vines  a  row 
of  strawberry  plants  is  set  out,  one  of  these  rows  being  directly  in 
line  with  the  vines.  The  plants  are  placed  upwards  of  32  inches  apart 
in  the  row,  and  from  these  original  plants  six  or  seven  runner  plants 
each  are  formed.  The  result  is  the  same  as  in  the  Lodi,  or  double 
matted-row  system  just  described,  with  a  bare  space  of  some  18  inches 
between  the  two  resulting  rows  on  each  bed.  Sometimes  the  strawberry 
plants  are  set  closer  together  in  the  rows,  say  14  to  18  inches  apart, 


22 

and  fewer  runner  plants  are  allowed  to  take  root.  The  number  of 
plants  originally  put  out,  as  heretofore  stated,  is  usually  dependent 
upon  the  means  of  the  grower.  The  beds  in  the  Florin  section  run 
east  and  west  and  the  vines  occupy  the  north  edge  of  the  beds,  in  order 
to  give  the  greater  sun  exposure  to  the  berries.  It  is  the  experience 
of  growers  that  the  strawberry  plants  along  the  south  edge  produce 
from  two  to  two  and  one-half  times  the  quantity  of  fruit  that  is  taken 
from  those  on  the  north. 

The  double  matted-row  system,  with  its  variation  in  use  at  Florin, 
is  especially  adapted  to  porous  sandy  soils  overlying  hardpan  or  heavy 
clay  subsoil,  for  rapid  lateral  percolation  is  assured  and  evaporation 


Fig.  14. — Strawberries  under  double  matted-row  system.  Two  independent 

rows   of  plants  are  formed   on   each   bed  between   furrows.  The   furrows   are 

only  for  irrigating,  and  the  bare  space  between  plant  rows  on  the  raised  bed 
is  for  cultivating  and  picking  berries. 

losses  are  likely  to  be  small,  owing  to  the  smaller  cross-section  of  the 
furrows.  The  system  has  an  added  practical  value  in  affording  a 
dry  place  for  pickers  to  walk  while  water  is  running  in  the  furrows. 
In  a  field  of  this  type  at  Florin  a  boring  made  in  the  exact  center  of  a 
bed  one  week  after  irrigation  disclosed  an  abundance  of  moisture  above 
the  hardpan,  which  was  30  inches  from  the  surface  at  this  point,  thus 
indicating  that  where  such  soil  conditions  are  encountered  an  extra 
furrow  through  the  center  of  the  bed  is  unnecessary.  However,  in  a 
very  heavy  soil  where  capillary  movement  is  sluggish,  or  in  a  soil  so 
porous  that  lateral  penetration  of  water  is  limited  to  a  few  inches, 
this  system  would  doubtless  be  found  inadequate. 


23 

Level-planting  system. — Under  this  system  no  raised  beds  are  made, 
but  the  plants  are  set  out  on  the  general  level  of  the  field  and  small 
furrows  are  afterwards  made  with  their  tops  higher  and  bottoms  lower 
than  the  surface  around  the  plants.  The  essential  difference  between 
this  and  the  raised-bed  method  is  that  with  the  former  the  furrows 
may  be  destroyed  by  cultivation  and  if  so  must  be  remade  before 
another  irrigation,  thus  permitting  flat  culture,  whereas  in  the  methods 
heretofore  considered  the  beds  and  furrows  are  made  permanent  during 
the  life  of  the  planting. 

The  level-planting  method  is  not  in  wide  use.  Instances  of  it  are 
found,  however,  in  Sonoma  and  Placer  counties,  and  in  San  Fernando 
Valley.  In  the  foothills  of  Placer  County  the  furrows  are  run  directly 
down  the  slope  of  the  hill,  unless  the  latter  is  too  steep,  and  are  placed 
close  to  the  plant  rows.  Where  the  ground  slopes  laterally  also,  the 
furrows  are  run  on  the  upper  side  of  the  rows  rather  than  below 
them.  The  plant  rows  are  usually  spaced  36  inches  from  center  to 
center  and  the  plants  are  grown  as  "singles"  12  to  16  inches  apart  in 
the  row.  The  furrows  are  about  4  to  6  inches  wide  and  2  inches  deep, 
and  unless  cultivated  down  and  renewed  from  time  to  time  erosion 
tends  to  increase  their  depth.  This  method  is  also  found  on  level  lands 
in  San  Fernando  Valley.  The  plants  are  set  in  single  rows  19  to  20 
inches  apart  and  about  11  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  with  a  furrow 
9  inches  wide  and  3  inches  deep  directly  between  the  rows.  In  Sonoma 
County  under  favorable  conditions  strawberries  are  often  unirrigated, 
being  laid  out  in  single  rows  3  feet  apart  and  upwards  of  18  inches 
apart  in  the  row,  on  a  flat-culture  basis. 

FURROW  SYSTEMS  FOR  BUSH  BERRIES 

Owing  to  the  much  greater  distances  bush  berries  are  set  apart, 
the  question  arises,  not  as  to  how  many  rows  of  plants  to  place  between 
two  furrows,  but  what  number  of  furrows  to  use  between  plant  rows. 

Single-furrow  system. — Where  only  one  furrow  is  used  between 
plant  rows  on  raised  beds  it  is  usually  broad  and  shallow.  Where  the 
rows  are  6  feet  apart  from  center  to  center  the  raised  ridge  is  about 
2  feet  wide  and  the  furrow  is  4  feet  wide  and  4  inches  deep,  and  level 
from  side  to  side.  An  advantage  claimed  for  this  is  the  elimination  of 
a  dry  area  in  the  space  between  rows.  The  spreading  of  the  water  in  a 
thin  sheet,  however,  increases  the  danger  of  evaporation  losses.  This 
method  is  found  in  parts  of  southern  California. 

There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  distance  between  bush-berry 
plants,  ranging  for  blackberries  from  3  to  8  feet  apart  in  rows,  and 


24 

from  5  to  10  feet  between  rows.  Probably  the  average  distance  for 
the  most  widely  grown  varieties  is  6  by  8  feet.  Dewberry  bushes 
average  4  feet  apart  in  rows  which  are  7  feet  apart.  The  average 
practice  for  loganberries  is  to  set  them  out  5  feet  apart  in  rows  6  feet 
apart,  although  practice  varies  in  different  localities  and  with  different 
soil  types.  Raspberries  are  usually  planted  closer  together  in  the 
rows,  generally  3  feet,  and  about  6  feet  between  rows.  Gooseberries, 
which  are  grown  to  a  very  limited  extent  in  California,  were  set  4  feet 
apart  in  rows  6  feet  apart  in  the  few  instances  noted,  and  currants 
about  2i/2  by  4%  feet. 


B&r<                   aij        I    2    jit'iitf  , ,■■■    mil 

.  '                                                                                   1 

i*m 

Fig.  15. — Young  loganberries  under  double-furrow  system.     The  intermediate 
ridge  between  plant  beds  provides  a  dry  path  for  pickers  while  water  is  running. 


Double-furrow  system. — The  use  of  two  irrigation  furrows  between 
rows  goes  with  growing  the  bush  berries  on  raised  beds.  The  furrows, 
which  are  small,  are  made  close  to  the  plant  rows  and  between  them 
is  a  low  ridge  which  provides  a  dry  path  for  pickers  to  walk  on  while 
irrigation  is  in  progress.  In  a  typical  field  where  the  plant  rows  are 
8  feet  apart,  the  main  plant  ridges  are  2  feet  wide,  intermediate  ridges 
3  feet  wide,  and  furrows  each  about  18  inches  wide  and  about  8  inches 
deep.  The  subsidiary  ridge  lies  several  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
plant  beds.  This  system,  which  is  very  general  in  southern  California, 
is  better  adapted  to  wide  spacing  of  plant  rows  than  is  the  plan  of 
having  one  broad  furrow,  because  of  the  necessarily  great  width  of 
the  latter,  and  the  greater  heads  of  water  necessary;  and  by  having 


25 

a  furrow  on  each  side  of  the  ridge  the  plant  roots  are  more  generously 
supplied  with  water  than  in  the  next  method  considered. 

Level-planting  system. — In  connection  with  setting  bush  berries  on 
the  general  level  of  the  field  one  small  furrow  is  often  provided  for 
their  irrigation.  This  is  placed  close  to  the  row  on  one  side  or  the 
other.  The  furrow  is  usually  made  12  to  18  inches  wide  and  about 
6  inches  deep.  This  is  the  plan  generally  followed  in  sections  with  more 
abundant  rainfall  than  that  of  southern  California  and  where  less 
irrigation  is  required.  In  the  Placer  County  foothills  the  rows  are 
usually  run  directly  down  the  slope,  with  a  furrow  4  inches  wide  and 
2  inches  deep  close  to  each  row.  "Where  bush  berries  are  not  irrigated, 
as  in  Sonoma  County  and  parts  of  Santa  Cruz  County,  no  attempt  is 
made  to  grow  them  on  raised  beds. 

APPLICATION  OF  WATER 

The  water  supply  for  berry  irrigation  must  be  a  dependable  one 
throughout  the  dry  season  and  particularly  while  fruit  is  being  pro- 
duced. This  applies  in  greater  measure  to  strawberries  than  to  other 
small  fruits  because  bush-berry  plants  are  the  more  drought  resistant. 
Only  small  quantities  of  water  are  needed  for  strawberries  at  any  one 
time,  but  it  is  needed  often,  and  the  lack  of  water  for  a  protracted 
period  during  the  summer  may  prove  fatal  to  the  plants  or  at  least 
impair  their  crop-producing  powers  for  another  season.  Hence  the 
commercial  strawberry  grower  whose  field  is  located  under  a  canal 
system  with  erratic  water  supply  often  needs  to  supplement  such 
supply  with  a  pumping  plant. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  pumping  plants  furnish  most  of  the  water 
used  in  the  large  berry  centers  of  California.  They  are  usually  small 
plants,  for  the  acreages  and  heads  of  water  used  are  small.2  In  the 
foothills  of  Placer  County  gravity  water  is  used,  delivery  being  con- 
tinuous to  each  irrigator  throughout  the  season  and  thus  favorable  to 
berry  irrigation.3 

The  amount  of  water  applied  to  strawberries  under  present  practice 
in  California  is  much  greater  than  that  applied  to  bush  fruits.  Straw- 
berries bear  for  a  longer  time  each  year  and  are  shallower  rooted,  and 
although  the  frequency  of  application  could  be  lessened  by  more  atten- 
tion to  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  cultivation,  nevertheless  the 


2  For  the  size  and  cost  of  a  pumping  plant  for  a  given  acreage,  see  Cal.  Agr. 
Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  117,  "The  Selection  and  Cost  of  a  Small  Pumping  Plant." 

3  For  a  description  of  irrigation  conditions  in  this  section  see  Cal.  Agr.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bull.  253,  "Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Foothilfs, 
California. ' ' 


26 

moisture  in  the  limited  feeding  zone  of  the  roots  requires  more  fre- 
quent replenishment  and  the  plants  are  more  ready  to  show  signs  of 
distress. 

STRAWBERRIES 

Strawberries  require  ample  moisture  in  the  soil  constantly  during 
the  growing  season  and  particularly  while  bearing  fruit;  hence  it 
is  obvious  that  varieties  with  a  long  bearing  season  need  more  water 
over  a  longer  period  than  so-called  "one-crop"  berries,  for  after  the 
latter  have  ceased  to  produce  fruit  they  need  less  for  the  development 
of  the  plants  alone.  As  the  root  system  is  usually  confined  to  the  first 
12  or  14  inches  in  depth  and  seldom  extends  below  18  inches,  the  upper 
2  feet  of  soil  must  be  kept  moist.  Hence  arises  the  necessity  for  fre- 
quent light  applications  of  water  in  amounts  sufficient  to  replace  mois- 
ture lost  by  evaporation  and  withdrawn  by  the  plants,  but  not  for  so 
great  a  supply  of  water  that  an  excess  is  permitted  to  seep  beyoud 
reach  of  the  roots.  Ordinarily  in  practice  no  particular  test  other  than 
dryness  of  the  surface  soil  and  a  brown  tint  to  the  leaves  is  used  to 
determine  when  this  need  for  irrigation  exists.  Many  growers  believe 
that  the  supply  of  berries  increases  with  the  amount  of  water  applied, 
and  due  to  this  belief  comparatively  few  plantations  are  found  where 
with  an  ample  water  supply  at  hand  the  plants  are  allowed  to  reach 
a  stage  of  distress  at  any  time  during  the  year.  Although  too  little 
water  causes  the  berries  to  be  few  and  small,  an  excess  often  renders 
the  fruit  soft  and  unfit  for  long  shipment.  In  some  sections  of  Cali- 
fornia, notably  the  Sebastopol  district  of  Sonoma  County,  many  straw- 
berry fields  are  not  irrigated.  Conditions  making  possible  strawberry 
production  without  irrigation  in  the  Sebastopol  district  are  the  heavy 
winter  rainfall  and  soil  conditions  favorable  to  the  retention  of 
moisture  during  a  large  part  of  the  dry  season,  but  yields  are  reported 
to  be  lighter  than  those  from  irrigated  fields,  and  in  a  dry  autumn  the 
plants  suffer  and  are  rendered  less  productive  the  following  season. 
Yet  for  economic  reasons,  such  as  the  high  cost  of  irrigation  and  diffi- 
culty of  competing  with  certain  other  sections,  irrigation  is  often  locally 
considered  not  justified. 

Where  strawberry  plants  are  grown  on  raised  beds,  which  as  before 
stated  is  the  common  practice  in  California,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  entire  ridges  must  primarily  be  wetted,  but  that  it  is  not  well  for 
the  surface  of  the  ridges  to  be  kept  damp  because  fruit  coming  in 
contact  with  damp  soil  usually  spoils,  and  further  because  such  surfaces 
on  drying  tend  to  become  baked  or  checked.    The  crust  may  of  course 


27 

be  broken  by  hoeing,  but  it  is  obviously  unnecessary  and  undesirable  to 
start  with.  Consequently  in  order  to  wet  the  ridges  thoroughly  without 
moistening  the  immediate  surface  layer,  the  practice  is  to  carry  the 
water  in  the  furrows  almost  to  the  ridge  tops  and  to  depend  upon 
lateral  seepage  and  capillarity  to  distribute  the  moisture  throughout 
the  ridges.  To  be  able  to  run  the  water  in  this  way  a  very  careful  pre- 
paration of  the  land  is  essential  (see  p.  2). 

The  number  of  furrows  watered  at  one  time  is  dependent  upon  the 
method  of  irrigating  and  upon  the  head  available.  That  is  to  say, 
if  the  method  is  to  fill  the  furrows  quickly,  to  take  the  head  elsewhere, 
and  to  allow  the  standing  water  to  seep  into  the  banks,  the  number  of 
furrows  a  single  head  is  turned  into  is  not  so  great  as  if  it  is  allowed 
to  run  into  the  furrows  for  a  long  time  and  to  feed  slowly  into  the  soil. 
The  former  practice  is  followed  in  sections  like  Pajaro  Valley  and 
Sacramento  County  where  capacious  furrows  are  the  rule.  With 
heads  of  water  of  90  to  200  or  300  gallons  per  minute  some  three  to 
nine  furrows  are  watered  at  one  time  and  the  amount  turned  into  each 
furrow  ranges  from  10  to  about  30  gallons  per  minute.  The  number 
of  furrows  is  sometimes  changed  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  irrigator. 
If  he  has  other  work  nearby  he  doubles  the  number  of  openings  in  the 
flume  and  thus  secures  more  time  between  changes  from  one  set  of 
furrows  to  another.  With  this  method  it  is  necessary  that  the  furrows 
be  level  from  end  to  end,  or  else  that  dams  or  checks  be  placed  at 
intervals  to  hold  back  the  water,  as  shown  on  page  14,  in  which  case  a 
fall  of  1  to  3  inches  is  given  in  100  feet  of  length.  Level  furrows  are 
desirable  only  in  well-drained  soil. 

The  method  of  running  the  water  for  long  periods  of  time  in  small 
furrows  is  followed  in  Placer  County  and  in  some  other  sections.  With 
a  stream  of  30  gallons  per  minute  upwards  of  twenty-six  furrows  are 
watered  at  one  time,  with  thus  about  1  gallon  per  minute  in  each 
furrow,  and  the  same  ratio  holds  good  for  smaller  heads.  Usually  the 
amount  is  gaged  by  the  quantity  necessary  to  reach  the  end  of  the 
furrow  without  waste,  and  this  quantity  once  established  is  permitted 
to  run  for  12  hours  or  more.  Some  very  steep  slopes  are  irrigated  in 
this  way.  On  fairly  heavy  soil  near  Gait,  from  thirty  to  sixty  furrows 
are  watered  at  one  time  with  a  head  of  90  gallons  per  minute,  or  iy2 
to  3  gallons  per  minute  in  each  furrow.  The  grade  is  approximately 
1  inch  in  100  feet.  The  water  is  run  for  about  10  hours  in  each  furrow. 
In  San  Fernando  Valley  on  sandy  loam  soils  with  but  little  grade, 
upwards  of  sixty  furrows  are  sometimes  supplied  at  one  time  with  a 
reported  flow  of  60  miner's  inches  and  the  water  run  for  a  long  time. 


28 


The  irrigation  season  extends  in  most  places  from  the  cessation 
of  spring  rains  until  some  time  in  the  fall.  If  the  dry  season  is  pro- 
tracted in  the  fall,  late  bearing  varieties  are  irrigated  sometimes  until 
December,  but  plants  that  have  ceased  to  bear  are  usually  not  watered 
so  late.  Conditions  are  different  in  most  sections  of  California  from 
the  mountain  states  where  the  season  is  much  shorter  than  here  and 
where  irrigation  must  be  suspended  to  permit  the  plants  to  go  into 
dormancy  before  freezing  weather  sets  in.  The  frequency  of  applying 
water  varies  from  time  to  time  during  the  season.  Factors  governing 
this  in  practice  are  the  length  of  the  bearing  season,  the  weather,  and 
the  convenience  of  the  irrigator.     In  general,  irrigation  occurs  most 


Fig.  16. — Irrigating    strawberries    under    matted-row    system.      Water    is 
turned  into  three  to  nine  of  these  large  furrows  at  one  time. 


frequently  during  the  summer  months  when  the  bearing  season  is  at 
its  height  and  hot  weather  is  prevalent,  and  as  pickings  then  occur 
oftener  the  applications  are  often  timed  to  follow  them  immediately. 
According  to  different  practices  the  intervals  at  which  the  field  is 
irrigated  depend  also  upon  soil  type  and  frequency  of  cultivation. 

In  Pajaro  Valley  the  usual  practice  is  to  irrigate  immediately  after 
picking,  which  means  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks  in  early  spring  and 
in  the  fall  months,  and  every  week  at  least  during  the  summer.  No 
particular  test  governs  the  time  of  irrigating,  but  it  is  largely  a  matter 
of  convenience.  However,  if  a  particularly  hot  spell  occurs  during  the 
summer  more  frequent  irrigations  are  the  rule,  sometimes  as  often  as 


29 

every  four  or  five  days.  A  great  many  days  in  summer  are  foggy 
and  in  some  cases  this  has  its  effect  on  the  frequency  of  irrigation, 
for  the  soil  naturally  remains  moist  a  greater  length  of  time  and 
longer  periods  are  allowed  to  elapse  between  waterings.  Some  growers 
in  this  section  irrigate  the  lighter  soils  every  week  and  heavier  ones 
every  two  weeks. 

The  practice  in  the  San  Juan  section  of  San  Benito  County  closely 
follows  that  in  Pajaro  Valley. 

In  Santa  Clara  Valley  strawberry  fields  are  irrigated  each  week 
in  summer  and  every  two  weeks  in  spring  and  fall. 

At  Gait,  in  Sacramento  County,  on  heavy  retentive  soils  the  irriga- 
tions are  comparatively  few,  averaging  eight  times  in  a  season,  or 
every  two  weeks  during  hot  weather.  In  the  Florin  district  of  tin's 
county,  however,  on  lighter  soils  berry  fields  are  irrigated  as  a  rule 
every  week  through  the  hot  weather  and  every  ten  days  when  the 
weather  is  cooler.  The  San  Joaquin  County  practice  is  the  same. 
If  the  weather  is  unusually  hot  or  if  a  north  wind  is  or  has  been 
blowing,  waterings  often  take  place  at  intervals  of  four  or  five  days. 

In  Placer  County  strawberries  are  not  irrigated  much  before  the 
fruiting  season,  but  while  the  plants  are  bearing  they  are  watered 
about  twice  each  week.  After  the  first  crop  no  more  water  is  applied 
than  absolutely  necessary  to  keep  the  plants  alive  until  about  two  weeks 
before  the  second  crop  comes  on,  when  frequent  irrigations  are  resumed. 

In  typical  sections  of  Orange  County  heavier  soils  are  irrigated 
every  ten  or  twelve  days  throughout  the  dry  season  and  lighter  sandy 
soils  more  frequently,  sometimes  each  week.  During  the  fruiting 
season  water  is  sometimes  applied  every  five  days. 

In  the  Burbank  section  of  Los  Angeles  County  on  sandy  loam  soil 
the  water  is  applied  as  often  as  every  second  day  during  the  fruiting 
season.  In  San  Gabriel  Valley  on  light  soil  it  is  applied  every  four 
or  five  days.  In  the  Gardena-Moneta  district  strawberry  plantations 
on  heavy  clay  soils  are  irrigated  each  week  or  ten  days,  and  on  light 
soils  twice  a  week  in  the  summer  and  less  often  in  spring  and  fall. 

In  some  southern  California  districts  growers  follow  the  practice  of 
irrigating  in  alternate  furrows  and  picking  from  the  dry  furrows  at 
the  same  time.  At  Montebello,  for  example,  one  grower  irrigates  every 
three  days,  turning  the  water  at  one  time  into  one  set  and  the  next 
time  into  the  other,  and  has  his  pickers  in  the  dry  furrows  simultane- 
ously. This  amounts  to  a  complete  irrigation  and  picking  every  six 
days.  The  same  practice  is  followed  by  some  berry  growers  in  the 
Moneta  section  and  elsewhere. 


30 

To  sum  up,  light  soils  generally  are  irrigated  at  intervals  of  three 
to  seven  days  in  summer  and  ten  to  fourteen  days  in  spring  and  fall, 
and  heavy  soils  every  week  or  every  two  weeks  in  hot  weather  and 
less  frequently  when  cooler. 

First-year  plants  require  less  water  than  older  ones.  They  are 
smaller  and  the  amount  of  fruit  produced  is  slight — barely  sufficient 
to  pay  for  picking.  Still  some  growers  irrigate  fully  as  much  during 
the  first  year  as  later.  Sometimes  young  plants  are  irrigated  as  fre- 
quently as  older  ones  but  with  less  water,  the  water  being  run  only  in 
the  bottoms  of  the  furrows.  The  time  of  applying  the  first  water 
depends  upon  whether  plants  are  set  out  early  or  late. 

The  duty  of  water  for  strawberries  under  present  practice  is  found 
to  be  low  as  compared  with  most  staple  crops,  being  estimated  to 
range  from  3  to  5  acre-feet  per  acre  in  most  of  the  important  centers 
of  the  state.  In  some  places  by  judicious  use  and  conservation  of  water 
the  seasonal  depth  is  kept  below  36  inches,  but  the  general  practice 
seems  to  be  to  apply  more.  Individual  applications  are  necessarily 
light,  ranging  from  1%  to  2  or  3  inches  in  depth  per  irrigation  and 
averaging  probably  2  inches.  Thus  with  the  depth  applied  at  each 
irrigation  remaining  practically  constant  at  a  figure  which  it  is  difficult 
to  lower  as  a  practical  undertaking,  the  question  of  increasing  the 
duty  of  water  apparently  becomes  one  of  limiting  the  total  number 
of  irrigations  in  a  season. 

In  a  farming  industry  which  involves  the  application  of  so  much 
water  as  strawberries  the  problem  of  drainage  assumes  importance. 
Low-lying  heavy  soils  are  apt  to  become  waterlogged  sooner  or  later, 
which  of  course  means  poor  plants  and  diminished  yields  of  fruit,  if 
not  loss  of  plants  absolutely  and  injury  to  the  soil  structure.  Surface 
drainage  during  the  rainy  season  is  also  necessary  to  avoid  flooding 
the  plants,  and  to  take  care  of  this  and  also  any  excess  of  irrigation 
water  small  drainage  channels  are  often  provided  at  the  ends  of  fur- 
rows. Sometimes  excess  irrigation  water  is  utilized  by  being  carried 
into  other  furrows. 

BUSH  BERRIES 
Bush  fruits  differ  from  strawberries  in  their  irrigation  needs  in 
that  they  are  deeper  rooted  and  thus  can  draw  upon  a  greater  depth 
of  soil;  hence  are  better  fitted  to  withstand  periods  of  drought.  In 
some  sections  of  California  they  are  not  irrigated  at  all — in  the 
Sebastopol  district,  for  example,  where  there  are  very  extensive  plant- 
ings of  blackberries  and  some  of  loganberries.     With  soil  conditions 


31 

favoring  the  retention  of  moisture  and  with  proper  cultivation  the 
rains  of  the  winter  seem  to  prove  sufficient  for  a  year's  production  of 
these  berries.  In  the  cool  bay  climate  of  Alameda  County  currants  are 
produced  likewise  without  irrigation.  In  some  other  sections,  however, 
where  bush  berries  can  be  and  are  grown  without  irrigation,  the  growth 
of  the  plants  and  the  quantity  of  fruit  are  often  increased  with  artifi- 
cial applications  of  water  to  such  an  extent  that  increased  profits 
justify  the  installation  of  irrigation  systems. 

The  time  when  blackberry,  raspberry,  loganberry,  and  other  such 
plants  need  moisture  mostly  is  while  forming  fruit,  and  after  the 
bearing  season  is  over  a  small  amount  suffices  to  maintain  the  plant 
growth.  If  the  moisture  supply  is  short  the  fruit  tends  to  be  small, 
dry,  and  seedy  and  the  yield  is  reduced.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  bush 
berries  can  survive  a  deficiency  in  water  supply  with  less  injury  than 
can  strawberries  it  is  sometimes  the  custom  of  bush-berry  growers  in 
years  of  poor  market  returns  to  apply  no  more  water  than  necessary 
to  keep  the  plants  alive  and  to  make  the  best  of  diminished  yields. 

The  irrigation  season  usually  extends  from  late  spring  to  some  time 
in  the  fall,  depending  upon  the  beginning  of  winter  rains,  though 
after  the  fruiting  season  waterings  are  very  infrequent.  Plants  in  their 
first  year  require  and  are  given  less  water  than  later,  and  the  intervals 
between  irrigations  are  more  frequent  during  hot  weather  than  in 
spring  and  fall. 

In  Pajaro  Valley  all  bush  berries  are  irrigated  except  in  favored 
spots,  such  as  those  occupying  sedimentary  bottom-land  soil  adjacent 
to  a  hillside  where  a  sufficient  amount  of  moisture  seeps  down  from 
the  upper  levels  to  replenish  the  supply  below.  Blackberries  are  irri- 
gated once  or  twice  before  the  blossoms  drop,  then  every  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  during  the  picking  season,  and  once  or  twice  thereafter, 
depending  upon  the  lateness  of  fall  rains.  Sometimes  they  are  irri- 
gated as  frequently  as  each  week  during  the  fruiting  period,  but  the 
two-weeks  interval  more  nearly  represents  the  general  practice.  The 
time  and  length  of  the  picking  season  of  course  depend  upon  the 
variety.  In  southern  California  the  practice  is  generally  the  same 
during  the  picking  season,  and  irrigation  continues  less  frequently 
than  before  up  to  the  time  rains  start  and  begins  again  with  the 
cessation  of  rains  in  the  spring.  In  some  situations,  such  as  on  heavy 
soils  near  Moneta,  irrigation  takes  place  only  once  a  month  throughout 
the  dry  season,  and  on  lighter  soils  it  may  take  place  twice  each  week 
while  picking  and  every  two  or  three  weeks  before  and  after.  In  Placer 
County  blackberries  are  irrigated  once  or  twice  a  week  during  the 


32 

fruiting  season  and  several  times  while  the  plants  are  not  in  bearing. 

In  most  sections  of  California  dewberries  are  given  practically  the 
same  irrigation  treatment  as  blackberries,  although  in  some  sections 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  state,  particularly  on  light  soils,  they  are 
irrigated  more  frequently  than  blackberries  under  the  same  conditions. 
Being  more  shallow-rooting  than  many  blackberry  varieties  they  are 
more  dependent  upon  irrigation. 

Loganberries  are  in  most  sections  given  about  the  same  amount 
of  water  as  are  dewberries.  In  Pajaro  Valley,  where  many  are  grown, 
they  are  watered  every  two  weeks  from  the  end  of  the  winter  rains 
until  the  close  of  the  fruiting  season,  and  once  or  twice  after  that. 


Fig.  17. — Young  loganberries,  recently  irrigated  with   single  furrows.     The 
plants  are  set  out  on  the  general  level  of  the  field  and  the  furrows  are  made  later. 


Sometimes  they  are  irrigated  more  frequently  while  bearing  fruit. 
The  practice  is  similar  in  southern  California,  with  often  a  greater 
seasonal  application  of  water.  Some  growers  irrigate  alternate  rows 
each  week  and  pick  from  the  unirrigated  rows.  Others  in  light  soils 
irrigate  every  three  or  four  days  during  the  fruiting  period. 

Raspberries,  as  a  rule,  feel  the  effect  of  drought  more  quickly 
than  blackberries.  In  southern  California,  where  many  are  grown, 
the  general  practice  is  to  irrigate  every  week  during  the  fruiting 
season  find  every  two  to  three  weeks  during  the  non-fruiting  season 
in  dry  weather.  In  Santa  Clara  Valley  the  practice  is  about  the  same. 
In  Placer  County  the  practice  is  similar  to  that  governing  blackberries, 


33 

viz.,  to  irrigate  every  three  to  seven  days  during  the  fruiting  season 
and  several  times  thereafter. 

As  before  stated,  gooseberries  are  found  in  only  a  few  localities 
in  California.  Those  grown  in  San  Joaquin  County  are  irrigated 
every  ten  days  in  the  spring  and  until  the  crop  has  been  removed, 
then  about  every  two  weeks  through  the  summer  and  less  frequently 
in  the  fall. 

Adequate  drainage  is  fully  as  essential  for  bush-berry  fields  as  for 
strawberries,  but  the  danger  of  waterlogging  the  soil  is  generally  not 
so  imminent  owing  to  the  lesser  quantities  of  water  applied. 

MOISTURE   CONSERVATION 

The  problem  of  conserving  irrigation  water  in  the  soil  is  deserving 
of  more  attention  from  small-fruit  growers  than  it  often  receives,  for 
it  involves  not  only  economy  in  the  application  of  water,  but  the 
maintenance  of  proper  soil  conditions  as  well.4  The  objections  growers 
make  to  summer  cultivation  of  strawberries  are  that  the  dragging  of 
a  harrow  along  the  furrow  tends  to  raise  more  or  less  dust,  which 
impairs  their  marketability  if  it  settles  on  the  low-lying  berries  in  any 
quantity;  and,  furthermore,  that  berries  that  may  hang  over  the  side 
of  the  ridge  are  bruised  by  the  cultivator.  For  these  reasons  the  harrow 
is  kept  out  of  the  field  as  much  as  possible  while  fruit  is  being  picked. 
A  good  mulch  is  usually  kept  on  the  tops  of  the  ridges,  but  their  area 
is  less  than  one-half  of  the  total,  and  is  the  only  ground  to  which  water 
is  not  directly  applied.  It  is  the  wetted  sides  and  bottoms  of  the 
furrows  that  are  most  in  need  of  frequent  cultivation. 

The  effect  on  the  soil  of  failing  to  cultivate  furrows  in  a  strawberry 
field  is  shown  in  figure  12,  page  17.  The  shrinking  of  the  soil  on 
drying  produced  large  cracks  through  which  moisture  was  lost,  a 
condition  which  would  have  been  prevented  by  harrowing  or  hand 
hoeing  after  irrigation.  In  this  instance  the  soil  was  a  fairly  heavy 
clay  loam,  and  the  baking  would  not  have  been  so  pronounced  in  a 
lighter  soil.  Prom  the  standpoint  of  water  application  alone,  frequent 
cultivations  during  the  growing  season  are  of  considerable  economic 
importance  in  that  they  decrease  the  amount  of  water  required  and 
consequently  the  cost  of  water,  a  factor  which  looms  large  in  many 
sections  of  the  state.  The  cost  of  cultivating  is  partially  offset  by  the 
lessened  cost  of  applying  water.  On  the  whole  it  would  appear  to  be 
questionable  whether,   under  ordinary  circumstances,   those   growers 


4  Dr.  C.  B.  Lipman  attributes  the  apparent  decrease  in  productive  capacity 
of  Pajaro  Valley  strawberry  soils  to  the  fact  that  water  is  applied  too  fre- 
quently and  proper  cultivation  neglected.     See  Cal.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Cir.  122. 


34 

who  entirely  dispense  with  summer  cultivation  can  balance  their  gains 
against  this  higher  water  cost  and  lessened  soil  productivity  caused 
by  excessive  applications  of  water. 

Summer  cultivation  of  strawberry  fields  is  most  generally  found 
in  southern  California,  where  in  some  sections  the  furrows  are  har- 
rowed after  every  irrigation,  for  it  is  recognized  that  moisture  may  be 
more  effectively  retained  in  the  soil  by  so  doing.  In  order  to  avoid 
bruising  the  berries  the  harrowings  are  often  timed  to  take  place 
immediately  after  ripe  berries  have  been  picked,  as  the  damage  to 
immature  fruit  is  not  so  great.  This  practice  is  not  universal  in  the 
south,  however,  for  many  growers  there  cultivate  only  in  the  spring. 
In  some  sections  of  the  state  where  water  is  plentiful,  the  furrows  are 
cultivated  thoroughly  before  and  after  the  fruiting  season  and  between 
crops  if  possible,  and  frequent  waterings  are  depended  on  to  keep  the 
soil  loose  during  the  picking  season.  This  is  the  general  practice  in 
Pajaro  Valley.  Where  this  practice  is  followed  the  tops  of  the  beds 
are  hoed  frequently  to  prevent  weed  growth  and  to  maintain  a  surface 
mulch  1  or  2  inches  deep.  Care  is  taken  in  hoeing  to  keep  away  from 
the  plants,  for  the  roots  are  close  to  the  surface  and  readily  injured. 
Some  growers  cultivate  thoroughly  twice  during  the  year,  once  in  the 
spring  and  again  in  midsummer,  and  use  the  hoe  as  occasion  requires 
to  destroy  weeds.  Sometimes  winter  cultivation  is  practiced,  especi- 
ally in  the  south,  where  in  parts  of  Los  Angeles  County  strawberry 
fields  are  cultivated  after  every  rain  in  the  winter.  Again  there  may 
be  only  one  or  two  winter  cultivations,  and  often  they  are  confined  to 
the  late  winter  when  the  heaviest  rains  are  over. 

The  type  of  cultivator  used  in  many  berry  fields  is  an  ordinary 
adjustable  V-shaped  spike-tooth  one-horse  harrow  containing  fourteen 
teeth.  Some  Pajaro  Valley  growers  have  a  removable  wooden  drag, 
about  2  inches  by  12  inches,  which  may  be  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
cultivator  to  smooth  the  bottom  of  the  furrow  and  spread  the  soil  to 
the  sides  against  the  ridges,  whence  it  has  a  tendency  to  wash  down. 
Where  the  furrows  are  quite  narrow,  as  in  the  single-row  system,  there 
is  sometimes  not  enough  space  between  the  rows  to  permit  the  use 
of  a  horse-drawn  cultivator  and  in  such  case  it  is  necessary  to  do  all 
stirring  of  the  soil  with  a  hoe  or  a  hand  cultivator.  Sometimes  the 
practice  is  to  renew  the  furrows  with  a  shovel-cultivator,  or  with  an 
ordinary  V-shaped  cultivator  with  a  broad  shovel  attached  to  the  rear. 
In  the  Sebastopol  district  unirri gated  strawberry  fields  are  usually 
cultivated  frequently  throughout  the  season  with  a  five-tooth  V-shaped 
cultivator  with  tin  shields  along  the  sides  to  prevent  the  dirt  from 
being  thrown  on  the  plants,  for  there  they  are  not  on  raised  beds. 


35 

Hand  cultivators  are  sometimes  used  also.  Generally  horse-drawn 
harrows  are  preferred  in  berry  fields  because  of  the  deeper  cultivation 
and  greater  amount  of  work  possible  in  a  given  time. 

In  the  case  of  bush  fruits  different  cultural  methods  are  followed, 
for  the  spreading  foliage  often  serves  to  shade  the  furrows  and  reduce 
surface  evaporation  and  consequent  loss  of  moisture,  at  the  same  time 
making  harrowing  close  to  the  ridges  more  difficult.  Furthermore, 
owing  to  the  wide  spaces  between  the  rows,  it  is  possible  to  plow  during 
the  non-growing  season,  an  impossible  operation  in  the  case  of  the 
closely  planted  strawberry  beds.  One  of  the  objections  to  cultivation 
during  the  fruiting  period  cited  with  reference  to  strawberries,  viz., 
the  danger  of  bruising  the  berries,  is  made  by  many  growers  of  cane 
fruits ;  but  where  the  canes  are  trained  to  fairly  high  trellises  and  are 
kept  from  spreading  too  far  it  is  found  practicable  to  run  a  harrow 
through  the  furrows  after  irrigating,  and  in  many  sections  this  is  done. 
Deep  cultivation  during  the  growing  season,  however,  is  avoided  for 
fear  of  injuring  the  fine  roots  that  closely  approach  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

In  Pajaro  Valley  some  growers  plow  twice  during  the  winter,  once 
toward  the  vines  and  again  away  from  them,  forming  the  furrows,  and 
harrow  after  each  plowing,  with  no  cultivation  thereafter.  Sometimes 
both  plowings  come  in  the  spring.  Some  growers  plow  three  times  in 
winter  and  spring,  and  harrow  afterwards.  Others  are  found  to  cul- 
tivate after  each  irrigation,  or  to  double  the  number  of  irrigations 
and  to  cultivate  after  every  second  one.  In  southern  California  the 
general  practice  is  to  cultivate  all  bush  berries  after  each  irrigation 
and  several  times  in  winter,  though  some  growers  dispense  with  sum- 
mer cultivation,  others  cultivate  after  every  second  irrigation,  and  still 
others  twice  between  irrigations.  In  Alameda  County,  currants,  which 
are  not  irrigated,  are  usually  plowed  twice  in  the  spring,  and  then 
harrowed  every  few  weeks  until  picking  time,  with  some  hand  work 
for  eradication  of  weeds.  Bush  fruits  in  Sonoma  County  are  often 
plowed  three  times  in  the  late  winter  and  early  spring,  then  cultivated 
with  a  spike-tooth  harrow  or  shovel-cultivator  from  four  to  eight  times, 
usually  only  once  after  picking  has  started.  Blackberries  of  the 
upright  type,  such  as  Lawtons,  are  tied  to  single  posts  and  cultivated 
both  ways,  but  the  trailing  Himalayas,  Mammoths,  and  loganberries 
are  necessarily  cultivated  in  one  direction  only.  For  where  not  ir- 
rigated, as  in  the  two  counties  last  named,  bush  fruits  are  even  more 
dependent  than  elsewhere  upon  proper  cultivation  for  the  retention 
in  the  soil  of  the  preceding  winter's  rainfall  and  its  availability  for 
the  maturing  of  the  fruit. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE  FOR  DISTRIBUTION 


REPORTS 

1897.     Resistant  Vines,  their  Selection,  Adaptation,  and  Grafting.     Appendix  to  Viticultural 
Report  for  1896. 

1902.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for   1898-1901. 

1903.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1901-03. 

1904.  Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1903-04. 

1914.  Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural   Experiment  Station,   July 

1913-June,  1914. 

1915.  Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural  Experiment   Station,   July 

1914-June,  1915. 


No. 
168. 

169. 
174. 

178. 
184. 

185. 

195. 
203. 

207. 
208. 
212. 
213. 
216. 


225. 
230. 
241. 
242. 
244. 
246. 
248. 


BULLETINS 
No. 

Observations   on    Some  Vine   Diseases  249. 

in   Sonoma  County.  250. 

Tolerance  of  the  Sugar  Beet  for  Alkali.  251. 

A  New  Wine-Cooling  Machine. 

Mosquito  Control. 

Report    of    the    Plant    Pathologist    to  252. 

July   1,    1906.  253. 

Report  of  Progress  in  Cereal  Investi- 
gations. 254. 

The   California   Grape  Root-worm.  255. 

Report    of    the    Plant    Pathologist    to  256. 

July   1,    1909.  257. 

The  Control  of  the  Argentine  Ant.  258. 

The  Late  Blight  of  Celery.  261. 

California  White  Wheats. 

The   Principles  of  Wine-making.  2C2. 

A  Progress  Report  Upon  Soil  and  Cli- 
matic  Factors   Influencing  the   Com-  263. 
position  of  Wheat.  264. 

Tolerance  of  Eucalyptus  for  Alkali.  265. 

Enological   Investigations.  266. 

Vine  Pruning  in  California,  Part  I. 

Humus   in  California   Soils.  267. 

Utilization  of  Waste  Oranges.  268. 

Vine   Pruning  in   California,    Part  II.  269. 

The  Economic  Value  of  Pacific  Coast 
Kelps. 


Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  California. 

The  Loquat. 

Utilization  of  the  Nitrogen  and  Organic 

Matter   in    Septic   and   Imhoff   Tank 

Sludges. 
Deterioration  of  Lumber. 
Irrigation   and   Soil  Conditions   in  the 

Sierra   Nevada   Foothills,   California. 
The  Avocado  in  California. 
The  Citricola  Scale. 
Value  of  Barley  for  Cows  Fed  Alfalfa. 
New  Dosage  Tables. 
Mealy  Bugs  of  Citrus  Trees. 
Melaxuma    of    the    Walnut,    "Juglans 

regia." 
Citrus   Diseases   of  Florida   and   Cuba 

Compared  with  Those  of  California. 
Size  Grade  for  Ripe  Olives. 
The  Calibration  of  the  Leakage  Meter. 
Cottony  Rot  of  Lemons  in  California. 
A  Spotting  of  Citrus  Fruits  Due  to  the 

Action  of  Oil  Liberated  from  the  Rind. 
Experiments  with  Stocks  for  Citrus. 
Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 
Phenolic   Insecticides   and  Fungicides. 


No. 
65.  The  California  Insecticide  Law. 

69.  The   Extermination    of   Morning-Glory. 

70.  Observations    on    the    Status    of    Corn 

Growing  in   California. 
76.   Hot  Room   Callusing. 
82.  The     Common     Ground     Squirrels     of 

California. 
100.   Pruning  Frosted  Citrus   Trees. 

106.  Directions  for  Using  Anti-Hog  Cholera 

Serum. 

107.  Spraying  Walnut  Trees  for  Blight  and 

Aphis    Control. 

108.  Grape  Juice. 

109.  Community  or  Local   Extension   Work 

by  the  High  School  Agricultural  De- 
partment. 

113.  Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

114.  Increasing  the  Dutv  of  Water. 

115.  Grafting  Vinifera  Vineyards. 

117.  The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small 

Pumping  Plant. 

118.  The  County  Farm  Bureau. 

119.  Winery  Directions. 

121.  Some    Things    the    Prospective    Settler 

Should  Know. 

122.  The  Management  of  Strawberry   Soils 

in  Pajaro  Valley. 

124.  Alfalfa   Silage  for  Fattening  Steers. 

125.  Aphids  on  Grain  and  Cantaloupes. 

126.  Spraying  for  the  Grape  Leaf  Hopper. 

127.  House  Fumigation. 

128.  Insecticide   Formulas. 

129.  The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects. 

130.  Cabbage   Growing  in   California. 

131.  Spraying  for  Control  of  Walnut  Aphis 


CIRCULARS 
No. 
132. 


133. 
134. 
135. 
136. 
137. 
138. 
139. 


140. 

141. 

142. 

143. 

144. 
145. 

146. 

147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 

151. 
152. 

153. 


When  to  Vaccinate  against  Hog 
Cholera. 

County  Farm  Adviser. 

Control  of  Raisin   Insects. 

Official  Tests  of  Dairy  Cows. 

Melilotus  Indica. 

Wood  Decay  in  Orchard  Trees. 

The  Silo  in  California  Agriculture. 

The  Generation  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid 
Gas  in  Fumigation  by  Portable  Ma- 
chines. 

The  Practical  Application  of  Improved 
Methods  of  Fermentation  in  Califor- 
nia Wineries  during  1913  and  1914. 

Standard  Insecticides  and  Fungicides 
versus   Secret  Preparations. 

Practical  and  Inexpensive  Poultry  Ap- 
pliances. 

Control  of  Grasshoppers  in  Imperial 
Valley. 

Oidium  or  Powdery  Mildew  of  the  Vine. 

Suggestions  to  Poultrymen  concerning 
Chicken  Pox. 

Jellies  and  Marmalades  from  Citrus 
bruits. 

Tomato  Growing  in  California. 

"Lungworms." 

Lawn  Making  in  California 

Round  Worms  in  Poultry — Life  His- 
tory and  Control. 

Feeding  and  Management  of  Hogs. 

Some  Observations  on  the  Bulk  Hand 
ling  of  Grain  for  California. 

Announcement  of  the  California  State 
Dairy  Cow  Competition,  1916-18. 


